Research Projects

This article has been published as part of the Rethinking Curriculum project, kindly funded by The Helen Hamlyn Trust.

Jenna Crittenden, Teacher Advocacy Lead at the Chartered College of Teaching 

Beth O’Brien, Education Content Manager at the Chartered College of Teaching

What is school belonging?

The feeling of belonging is a multifaceted and subjective concept. While it is widely recognised as a fundamental human need, associated with numerous mental, physical, social and economic benefits, it remains difficult to conceptualise and foster in practice (Allen et al., 2021). In schools, belonging can be particularly complex because it is often relational, contextual and dynamic, shaped by everyday interactions with peers, teachers, spaces and systems.

Despite its subjective nature, the most widely accepted definition of school belonging derives from Goodenow and Grady (1993) and was later adapted by Allen et al. (2018), who define it as:

‘the extent to which students feel personally accepted, respected, included, and supported by others in the school social environment’ 

                                                                                                                                                                           (Allen et al., 2018, p. 2)

The reference to ‘others’ highlights the wide range of individuals who contribute to pupils’ sense of belonging, including peers, teachers, parents and other significant adults (Allen et al., 2021). More recent definitions have also highlighted the importance of psychological safety. For example, Riley et al. (2020a, p. 2) describe school belonging as ‘the sense of being somewhere you can be confident that you will fit in and be safe in your identity’. In this sense, belonging extends beyond simply enjoying school; it involves feeling recognised, valued, connected and supported, while being able to participate authentically within the school community.

Several related concepts are often used alongside, or interchangeably with, school belonging, including connectedness, attachment, engagement, identification and bonding (Allen et al., 2018). Although these terms overlap conceptually, school belonging is generally understood as the broader construct, encompassing pupils’ feelings of acceptance, inclusionAn approach where a school aims to ensure that all children are educated together, with support for those who require it to access the full curriculum and contribute to and participate in all aspects of school life and connection within the school community.

How does wellbeing fit into this?

Like belonging, wellbeing is a complex and subjective concept. It is commonly understood as the extent to which individuals feel and function effectively across multiple domains, including their emotional, social, cognitive and physical lives (Pollard and Lee, 2003). Dodge et al. (2012) argue that wellbeing is not a fixed state but a dynamic process, shaped by the balance between individuals’ available resources and the challenges they face. Consequently, wellbeing can fluctuate over time and vary considerably between individuals. 

In schools, pupils' wellbeing is shaped by numerous complex factors, including relationships with teachers and peers, school routines, curriculum experiences and the wider school ethos. Bronfenbrenner's (1979) ecological systems theory suggests that these environmental influences interact with pupils’ individual characteristics and experiences, meaning that even pupils with similar backgrounds may experience different levels of wellbeing. Schools therefore play a significant role in promoting wellbeing through whole-school approaches that embed supportive relationships, inclusive practices and a positive learning environment (DfEDepartment for Education - a ministerial department responsible for children’s services and education in England, 2023). 

Belonging and wellbeing are closely interconnected and are widely regarded as mutually reinforcing. Indeed, the National Children’s Bureau (NCB) (2025, p. 6) argues that school belonging is a ‘vital’ component of pupil wellbeing, with research consistently linking stronger belonging with improved mental health and emotional wellbeing. This relationship is further supported by findings from the OECD’s PISAThe Programme for International Student Assessment, a worldwide study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), intended to evaluate educational systems by measuring 15-year-old school students’ knowledge and skills 2022 assessments, which show that young people with a stronger sense of belonging report greater life satisfaction and lower levels of anxiety (OECD, 2023). 

Conversely, positive wellbeing can make it easier for pupils to form meaningful connections within their school community. Pupils who experience higher levels of wellbeing are often better equipped to form positive relationships, manage social challenges, and participate confidently in school life, all of which contribute to the development of belonging. The Education Endowment Foundation’s (EEF, 2019) research demonstrates that social and emotional learning approaches improve emotional regulation, resilience and social connection, all of which underpin a sense of belonging. As such, wellbeing should be viewed not only as an outcome of belonging, but also as a contributing factor that enables pupils to build and sustain positive relationships within school.

Current context

Enhancing pupils’ sense of belonging remains a significant challenge for the education sector. Indeed, a 2020 NEU report found that one in four pupils felt they did not belong at school (Riley et al., 2020a). More recent pupil data from the Department for EducationThe ministerial department responsible for children’s services and education in England (DfE) (2025a) suggests that while there has been an increase in pupils’ feelings of belonging, experiences vary considerably across groups. Female pupils, those eligible for free school meals and pupils with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) are more likely to feel disconnected from their school community (DfE, 2025a). Similarly, Riley et al. (2020a) found that pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds are twice as likely as their more advantaged peers to feel they don’t belong and four times more likely to be excluded. 

Concerns about school belonging sit alongside wider challenges relating to pupil wellbeing. OECD PISA assessment data (2023) shows that UK pupils report some of the lowest levels of wellbeing in Western Europe, while findings from the Mental Health of Children and Young People in England 2023 survey indicate that 20 percent of children and young people aged 8 to 16 years had a probable mental health disorder (NHS England, 2023). Given the close relationship between belonging and wellbeing, these trends reinforce the need for schools to consider how they create environments where pupils feel safe, valued and connected. 

The relationship between belonging and pupils’ wider experiences of school is increasingly recognised. The DfE’s most recent Pupil Experiences in School survey (2025a) identifies belonging as closely linked to pupils’ feelings of safety, enjoyment, relationships and motivation to learn. Findings indicate that lower levels of belonging are associated with increased absenteeism and disengagement, while schools where pupils report stronger feelings of belonging have higher attendance, fewer exclusions and more positive behaviour. This suggests that belonging is not only an indicator of pupils’ individual experiences, but also a valuable measure of how effectively a school is supporting its community.

In response to these challenges, belonging, inclusion and wellbeing have become increasingly prominent within education policy. The recently revised OfstedThe Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills – a non-ministerial department responsible for inspecting and regulating services that care for children and young people, and services providing education and skills inspection framework (2025) introduces ‘Personal Development and Wellbeing’ as a standalone evaluation area, emphasising the need for schools to develop pupils’ confidence, resilience and emotional wellbeing while ensuring they are safe, included and able to participate fully in school life. Although the framework does not explicitly refer to ‘belonging’, it places considerable emphasis on closely related concepts, including inclusion, positive relationships and pupil safety. Similarly, the DfE (2026a) has recently updated its schools mental health and wellbeing guidance, highlighting the benefits of effective provision, including improved attendance, engagement and longer-term life outcomes. Within a wider policy context, belonging is also increasingly understood as an important measure of equity. Wider policy developments, including the White Paper (DfE, 2026b) and Curriculum and Assessment Review (DfE, 2025b), further emphasise inclusion and equitable participation. Together, these developments reflect growing recognition of belonging and wellbeing as central to improving pupil outcomes and addressing educational inequalities.

Benefits of fostering a sense of pupil belonging and wellbeing

Research evidence suggests that a strong sense of belonging and wellbeing is associated with a range of positive outcomes for pupils. These include:

• Improved academic outcomes (Craggs and Kelly, 2018; Korpershoek et al., 2020; Riley et al., 2020a; Akar Vural et al., 2020)
• Improved attendance (Hagenauer, 2021; Riley et al., 2020a; Sims, 2024; NCB, 2025), which has a particularly positive impact for pupils eligible for pupil premiumAdditional funding for publicly funded schools in England to raise the attainment of disadvantaged pupils of all abilities (Sims, 2024)
• Improved inclusion for pupils with SEND (NCB, 2025)
• Increased pupil motivation and engagement (Korpershoek et al., 2020; Riley et al., 2020a; Kuttner, 2023)
• Improved mental health and wellbeing (Riley et al., 2020a; Korpershoek et al., 2020; Arslan, 2018)
• Improved sense of pupil agency (Riley, 2019; Riley et al., 2020a)
• Reduced behaviour incidents (NCB, 2025) 

Fostering a strong sense of wellbeing and belonging is also linked to positive outcomes for other stakeholders, such as teachers, parents, families and the wider school community. These include:

• Improved teacher confidence (NCB, 2025)
• Improved teacher morale (NCB, 2025)
• Improved rates of teacher retention (Riley et al., 2020a)
• Increased levels of parent, carer and family involvement (NCB, 2025)
• Increased levels of parent, carer and family trust in schools (NCB, 2025) 

While research consistently demonstrates that school belonging has a crucial influence on pupil outcomes (Allen et al., 2018), less is known about how schools can effectively foster belonging in practice. Furthermore, much of the existing evidence, both within the UK and internationally, focuses on secondary-aged pupils, with comparatively little research exploring the experiences of belonging among primary-aged children (NCB, 2024). Despite this, emerging insights can still serve to inform policy and practice in schools. 

What can schools do to foster pupil belonging and wellbeing?

Research consistently shows that school belonging and pupil wellbeing are shaped by a combination of relational, structural and psychological factors. Although evidence on ‘what works’ in practice, particularly in primary schools, remains limited, we have summarised emerging research and examples of effective practice below. We have also considered some of the barriers to implementation to help you think about how you might anticipate or overcome them in your own setting. 

Leadership and whole-school culture 

Effective school leadership is widely recognised as central to fostering pupil belonging and wellbeing, with evidence suggesting that intentional multi-level practices can create a climate of inclusion (Riley et al., 2020a; DfE, 2023). As Riley et al. (2020a) argue, the attitudes, systems and practices embedded within a school can either foster belonging or signal to pupils, staff and families that they are not valued. Effective leadership in this area therefore requires more than setting strategic priorities; it involves establishing a coherent whole-school culture where inclusion, relationships and wellbeing are embedded within everyday practice. 

A strong culture of belonging is characterised by shared values and consistent expectations for behaviour, relationships and inclusion, which are explicitly taught, modelled and reinforced by all members of the school community. Fair and transparent policies (Allen et al., 2018), psychologically safe environments (Slaten et al., 2016), and relational approaches to behaviour (Riley et al., 2020b) can contribute to pupils feeling valued, respected and connected. In contrast, punitive disciplinary practices, including the use of isolation rooms, may undermine pupils' fundamental need to belong, negatively affecting their wellbeing (NCB, 2024). Riley et al. (2020b) highlight that such approaches disproportionately affect historically marginalised groups, including those from disadvantaged backgrounds, Black pupils, and pupils with SEND. Instead, research increasingly supports restorative and relational approaches that prioritise trust, repair and reintegration over compliance and punishment (Riley et al., 2020b; NCB, 2024). 

The wider school environment also plays an important role in shaping pupils' sense of belonging. Schools should consider the physical spaces and less structured parts of the school day – such as breaktimes, lunchtimes and transitions – where pupils may experience greater social vulnerability (NCB, 2024). Creating welcoming, inclusive spaces and ensuring consistent adult support throughout the school day can therefore strengthen pupils' sense of safety and connection (NCB, 2024). 

To support this work, schools should also consider establishing dedicated leadership responsibility for wellbeing and belonging. The DfE (2023) recommends appointing a Senior Mental Health Lead to coordinate this work, alongside a governor with knowledge of this area to champion the agenda and provide strategic oversight. 

Importantly, a strong culture of belonging must also extend to staff as well as pupils (DfE, 2023). Research suggests that when staff themselves experience trust, respect and professional agency, they are better able to foster these conditions for pupils (Riley et al., 2020a). Similarly, meaningful partnerships with parents and carers reinforce pupils' sense of belonging by promoting consistency, trust and shared responsibility between home and school (NCB, 2024). Effective leadership must therefore be both relational and strategic, creating a culture where pupils, staff and families alike feel recognised, valued and connected. 

Pupil–teacher relationships

The quality of pupil–teacher relationships is understood to be one of the strongest determinants of school belonging (Allen et al., 2018; Riley et al., 2020a; NCB, 2024). These relationships are often characterised by mutual care, respect, support, empathy and encouragement, alongside academic support (Allen et al., 2018; NCB, 2024). Evidence also suggests that teachers’ interpersonal skills are particularly crucial: empathy (Cai et al., 2022), active listening (Allen et al., 2021), and fair, respectful treatment of pupils (Allen et al., 2018; 2021) all contribute to stronger feelings of belonging. 

Beyond relational dispositions, classroom-based interventions and pedagogical practices also play a significant role in strengthening teacher–pupil relationships. The quality of classroom dialogue appears particularly important. For example, Faughey (2019) demonstrates how conversations that acknowledge and celebrate cultural difference can enhance inclusion, while García and Dutro (2018) demonstrate the value of honest and supportive dialogue around sensitive issues such as migration and bereavement. More broadly, research suggests that teacher-led approaches are most effective when they explicitly support pupils’ social and emotional development (Korpershoek et al., 2016; Allen et al., 2023).

However, teachers’ ability to build and sustain these relationships can be challenging. Teachers may feel underprepared or uncomfortable addressing sensitive or controversial issues, highlighting the need for sustained, high-quality professional development that builds confidence, knowledge and pedagogical skill (Davies, 2025). Alongside this, workload and accountability pressures – including administrative demands and an increased emphasis on external testing – can reduce opportunities for meaningful interactions (NCB, 2024). Supportive leadership teams are therefore critical in creating the conditions in which teachers can flourish (Riley et al., 2020a), by protecting time, supporting professional development and recognising relational practice as central to fostering pupil belonging. 

Curriculum

A curriculum that fosters belonging requires consideration of both what is taught and whose knowledge is represented. This involves challenging stereotypes and problematic historical narratives that may alienate pupils, particularly in subjects such as English, geography, and history (Quigley, 2026). It also requires intentionally embedding perspectives and examples from communities that are often marginalised or overlooked across subject areas, rather than treating them as tokenistic ‘add-ons’ (Brett and Brassington, 2023; Griffiths et al., 2024; Davies, 2025). However, educators must be mindful of what Mcfarlane (2024) refers to as the ‘visibility paradox’, where attempts to celebrate difference can inadvertently reinforce marginalisation if not handled carefully. Developing staff expertise through sustained professional development – whether internally or via external expertise – is therefore essential, alongside protected time for teachers to reflect critically on representation within the curriculum (Davies, 2025). 

Belonging can also be shaped through pedagogy. Teachers’ everyday classroom decisions can influence whether students feel included, valued and able to participate. Classroom approaches that emphasise learning processes, improvement and collaboration, rather than comparison and performance, are associated with stronger feelings of belonging (Allen et al., 2018; Korpershoek et al., 2020). Formative assessment practices can also support inclusion by positioning mistakes as opportunities for learning; for example, whole-class feedback allows teachers to address misconceptions without singling out individual pupils (Morgan et al., 2023; Quigley, 2026).

Classroom dialogue is another important mechanism through which belonging can be fostered. Research indicates that high-quality classroom dialogue can improve conceptual understanding, confidence and self-efficacy, while structured talk routines and active listening strategies support equitable participation and help pupils feel heard (Mercer, 2008; Mercer and Howe, 2012; Alexander, 2020). However, Mercer (2008) also notes that such approaches need to be carefully scaffolded so all pupils can meaningfully participate in collaborative discussion, thus avoiding further exclusion. 

Other key approaches include flexible and frequently rotating grouping structures to reduce fixed labels and exclusion (Quigley, 2026). More broadly, whole-school approaches, including strengthening literacy provision, can further promote belonging and wellbeing by improving access to the curriculum for all pupils (Griffiths et al., 2024). 

Pupil voice and agency

Pupil voice is increasingly recognised as a key mechanism for strengthening belonging. Pupils are more likely to feel connected to school when they believe their views influence decisions that affect them (Riley et al., 2020a). Meaningful participation can also support wellbeing by developing confidence, self-esteem, independence and relationships with peers and staff (DfE, 2023). As the NCB (2024, p. 42) emphasises, ‘the voices of pupils… can be a powerful tool to inform inclusive practice; they know best what is affecting them, whether positively or adversely’. 

However, meaningful pupil participation extends beyond consultation; pupils must have a genuine level of influence over decisions. As Davies (2025) notes, superficial attempts can undermine trust and weaken, rather than strengthen, belonging. Effective approaches include school councils, surveys, focus groups and the co-creation of curricula and initiatives, alongside informal opportunities for pupils to share their experiences. At the same time, evidence cautions against placing the burden of representation on individual pupils to speak for entire identity groups, which can be reductive and inequitable (Davies, 2025). Instead, the goal is to create ongoing, psychologically safe channels for participation that acknowledge diversityThe recognition of individual differences in terms of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socio-economic status, physical ability, religious beliefs and other differences of experience and allow multiple perspectives to be heard. Importantly, it often takes time for pupils to develop confidence that their contributions will lead to visible change, meaning that responsiveness from staff is critical in building credibility.

Measurement and monitoring 

Effective measurement and monitoring support schools to understand pupils’ experiences, identify patterns and target support. However, there is currently no universally agreed ‘gold standard’ measure of school belonging or wellbeing (Allen et al., 2021, p. 91). Indeed, current approaches to measurement remain fragmented. Franklin et al. (2024) highlight that measurement activity in schools in England is inconsistent, limiting the ability of practitioners and policymakers to build a clear understanding of children’s wellbeing.

However, there are a number of tools that can be used to capture different aspects of pupils’ experiences, including the Psychological Sense of School Membership scale (PSSM) (Goodenow and Grady, 1993) – which has demonstrated reliabilityIn assessment, the degree to which the outcome of a particular assessment would be consistent – for example, if it were marked by a different marker or taken again across different cultural contexts, including among primary-aged pupils (NCB, 2024) – and the Programme for International Student AssessmentAbbreviated to PISA, a worldwide study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), intended to evaluate educational systems by measuring 15-year-old school students’ knowledge and skills (PISA) belonging measures (OECD, 2023). However, these measures vary in focus and do not always capture key relational factors that contribute to pupils’ experiences of belonging. The DfE (2023) also recommends a toolkit produced by Mentally Healthy Schools to support the monitoring of pupil wellbeing, alongside the Stirling Children’s Wellbeing Scale, which is suitable for measuring emotional wellbeing in children aged 8 to 15 years.

There is growing support for a universal wellbeing measurement in England (Franklin et al., 2024). Indeed, the DfE (2025a) now routinely collects data on pupils’ experiences of belonging, safety and enjoyment through its annual pupil survey, while Gross (2026) argues that schools need to ‘operationalise the concept’ of belonging through practical measures, such as a Belonging Index, to inform self-evaluation and improvement planning. In the absence of a single agreed measure, the NCB (2024) recommends adapting existing tools to reflect the needs of each school community.

Other factors influencing belonging and wellbeing

Several additional factors can contribute to pupils’ sense of belonging and wellbeing, including:

Parental involvement can strengthen pupils’ connection with school. Research suggests that parental emotional support, encouragement and positive attitudes towards learning are associated with stronger feelings of school belonging (Allen et al., 2018). Schools can support this by developing meaningful partnerships with families; ensuring communication between home and school is effective; involving parents in school life; and clearly communicating available wellbeing support (Allen et al., 2018; DfE, 2023). 

Extracurricular opportunities can also enhance pupils’ sense of connection and belonging by providing additional opportunities to develop relationships, explore interests and participate in the wider school community (Allen et al., 2018). However, evidence suggests that participation needs to be meaningful and balanced, as simply increasing involvement does not automatically lead to improved belonging (Slaten et al., 2016). The DfE’s (2026c) recently published Enrichment Framework provides non-statutory guidance to support schools in designing, delivering and evaluating a high-quality enrichment offer for all pupils.

Peer relationships are another important influence on pupils’ experiences of school. Friendships characterised by trust, care and openness are associated with stronger feelings of belonging and wellbeing (Allen et al., 2018). However, research highlights that belonging is not simply about being part of a friendship group or social ‘clique’; rather, it depends on the quality and authenticity of relationships (Riley et al., 2020a). Schools can therefore support belonging through inclusive classroom practices, effective anti-bullying approaches and opportunities for pupils to build meaningful connections. While peer relationships are important, and increasingly influential during adolescence, evidence suggests that supportive relationships with teachers remain one of the strongest predictors of belonging across age groups (Allen et al., 2018).

Practical implications for schools

Belonging and wellbeing are contested and complex concepts. While evidence demonstrates their importance for pupil outcomes, further UK-based research is needed, particularly in primary schools, to better understand how schools can effectively foster belonging in practice (NCB, 2024). Nevertheless, existing research provides a valuable foundation for school leaders and teachers.

As with any approach, there are numerous ways in which it can be implemented, depending on the unique characteristics of a school’s context and its pupils. When thinking about enhancing belonging and wellbeing it your school, it may be helpful to consider the following takeaways from the research findings to inform your approach:

• Develop a shared understanding of key terms. Belonging and wellbeing are complex, dynamic and subjective concepts. Although distinct, they are closely interconnected and mutually reinforcing. Ensure that pupils, staff and the wider school community have a shared understanding of what these concepts mean, why they matter and how they are reflected in school life. 
• Make belonging a strategic priority. Belonging should be embedded within school improvement planning, curriculum, pedagogy and culture rather than viewed solely as a pastoral responsibility. Stronger belonging is associated with improved attendance, behaviour, engagement, mental health and academic outcomes.
• Adopt a whole-school approach. Belonging and wellbeing are strengthened when they are consistently promoted through leadership, relationships, policies, the curriculum and the wider school environment, rather than through isolated, one-off interventions. 
• Prioritise positive relationships. Strong, trusting relationships between pupils and staff are among the most important predictors of school belonging. Leaders should create conditions that allow staff time and support to build these relationships.
• Review behaviour policies through a relational lens. Restorative and relational approaches are more likely to promote belonging than punitive practices, particularly for disadvantaged pupils and those with SEND.
• Design an inclusive curriculum. Ensure that curriculum content reflects diverse perspectives, challenges stereotypes and enables all pupils to see themselves represented, while using pedagogy that promotes collaboration, dialogue and participation.
• Give pupils a meaningful voice. Involve pupils in genuine decision-making through surveys, councils and co-creation of the curriculum, ensuring that feedback leads to visible action and builds trust.
• Measure and monitor belonging and wellbeing. Collect and use pupil voice and wellbeing data to identify trends, target support and evaluate improvement. Regular measurement should inform school development rather than become a compliance exercise.
• Prioritise equity and inclusion. Recognise that some groups, including pupils eligible for free school meals and pupils with SEND, are more likely to experience lower levels of belonging. Strategies should therefore be designed with equity at their core.
• Enhance staff wellbeing. Staff who feel trusted, valued and supported are better able to foster belonging for pupils. A culture of belonging should therefore extend to adults as well as children.
• Work in partnership with families. Strong relationships with parents and carers reinforce pupils' sense of belonging and create greater consistency between home and school, improving wellbeing and engagement.

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