Bringing cognitive neuroscience into the classroom: Some challenges and many opportunities

TARA KIRAN KURRE, TEACHER EDUCATOR, AZIM PREMJI UNIVERSITY, INDIA

Neuroscience, the study of the structures and functions of the brain, intrigues educators for its application in education. The insights provided by neuroscience on how we learn might help in planning effective pedagogies that will help teachers to create better learning experiences for students. However, several researchers argue that the bridge between neuroscience and education is too far. As Bruer (1997, p. 15) argued, ‘Neuroscience has discovered a great deal about neurons and synapses, but not nearly enough to guide educational practice.’ One of the challenges in the translation of neuroscience research to education, as Beale (2021) mentions, is that education is too complex and humanistic an affair, to which neuroscience research has little to offer (Perry et al., 2021). Another challenge is that education is not a branch of science, and therefore direct translation of theory to application in education is difficult, due to methodological differences. As Wiliam (2019) suggests, education can therefore only be research-informed, not research-based.

This awareness of the limitations of translating neuroscience research into classroom practice helps us to avoid falling prey to scientism, which is believing excessively in the power or value of science (Beale, 2021), and to be careful while translating neuroscientific claims into classrooms. Nevertheless, with good evidence, sound research methodologies and justifications to show the practical implementations in classrooms, a bridge between research and practice can be built (Beale, 2021). In this article, I will offer my perspective on incorporating evidence-based classroom practices to optimise learning in adolescents in particular.

Implications of cognitive neuroscience in classrooms to enrich learning in adolescents

1. Creating a low-stress, positive environment

Hall (1904), defined the period as heightened storm and stress. Adolescents are more prone to stress compared with children and adults, due to the changes that occur in the neurobiology of their brains. Among all species, the rate of human brain development is the slowest and the period of adolescence is elongated (Thompson and Nelson, 2011). This elongated period offers increased plasticity, which helps adolescents to learn about the environment, especially the social environment. Conversely, the increased plasticity also renders the brain vulnerable to stress. The stressors have a greater effect on the adolescent brain compared to the adult brain. The varied effect of stress on adolescents and adults is also due to the developing brains in adolescents being rich with stress hormone receptors compared to adult brains (Tottenham and Galván, 2016). Another reason for the pronounced effect in adolescents is that the stressors affect not only stress-sensitive regions but also other parts of the brain whose function depends on stress-sensitive regions (Tottenham and Galván, 2016). Simultaneously, adolescents also go through puberty, which comes with many hormonal fluctuations, resulting in changes in their body that add to the stress (Eiland and Romeo, 2013). Although there is evidence suggesting that some amount of stress facilitates learning (Whiting et al., 2021), prolonged high amounts of stress are shown to result in depression, poor concentration and sleep disorders, leading to poor academic achievement. Thus, it is important to provide low-stress environments to encourage the overall wellbeing of adolescents. In the following paragraphs, I will focus on some evidence-based strategies that will help in creating a low-stress environment to support and facilitate learning among adolescents.

a. Creating opportunities to bond with peers via collaboration

Collaborative activities can help significantly in increasing the social interactions among learners (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Adolescents may display awkward social behaviour, and giving them opportunities to work together helps them to bond with peers. Studies (Perry et al., 2021) have also shown that collaborative problem-solving activities facilitate learning in classrooms, especially in mathematics, by managing cognitive load as learners work together, share information and help each other. However, teachers must provide clear instructions on the task and support for effective communication strategies must be in place between the peers working in a group in order for them to succeed at the task.

b. Providing a support system for adolescents

Social scaffoldingProgressively introducing students to new concepts to support their learning is key for the wellbeing of adolescents when they are getting ready to take on adult roles, with multiple changes happening mentally and physiologically. Masten (1999)  observed that adult monitoring is often withdrawn too early in this sensitive period, leading to poor decision-making and peer influence. Teachers can play a significant role in forming a reliable support system for learners in this phase, by creating positive relationships with them in the classroom.

Block scheduling – that is, having two periods together allotted for a subject – allows a smaller pupil load for teachers per day and provides an opportunity for them to spend more time with the students. This arrangement of block scheduling is found to potentially improve the behaviour concerns of students and result in better grades, as lengthened instruction time leads to in-depth subject discussions (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). However, it is particularly important to plan carefully for the instruction in block periods, as longer instruction time might lead to a loss of interest among students, as they have difficulty in concentrating for longer times. Looping of teachers also helps in this regard. Looping is an approach where the same teacher continues with the students as they progress to higher grades where possible, allowing teachers to know their students better. This profound knowledge of student learning and the great relationships developed over the years between learners and teachers is shown to improve achievement markedly, notably for underachievers in particular (Hampton, 1997).

2. Neuroplasticity and learning

Neuroplasticity refers to the ability of the brain to change its structure and capacity based on experiences over a lifetime. It shows that intelligence is not static and can be attained with deliberate effort and practice. The plasticity of the brain can be classified as two types. One is ‘experience-expectant’, which occurs during a critical period where an organism expects to be exposed to certain stimuli, and the other is ‘experience-dependent’, which is influenced by the environment of the organism. Experience-dependent plasticity makes each brain slightly different from others, depending on the specific experiences that they undergo, and it enables life-long learning via education (Goswami, 2008). During adolescence, there is significant synaptogenesis (formation of synapses between neurons) and pruning (elimination of unused synapses), which results in heightened plasticity (Casey et al., 2008). This phenomenon leads to increased vulnerabilities but also to enhanced cognitive skills and memory (Fuhrmann et al., 2015). The following strategies can potentially enhance learning in the classroom by exploiting the neuroplasticity of the brain.

a. Extended learning time

Darling-Hammond et al. (2020) emphasise that every brain is capable of learning if the learner is given adequate and regular instruction, owing to the plasticity and experience-dependency of the brain. This point resonates with Bloom’s theory of mastery learning (1968). Carroll (1963), whose article, ‘A model of school learning’, inspired Bloom to frame mastery learning, argued that pupils are either slow or fast learners, but not good or bad learners. According to Carroll, the degree of learning depends on the time spent in relation to the time needed for learning. Time spent on learning depends on the motivation of the child and their opportunities to learn (which is the classroom time allotted). Given the right opportunities and time, each child can attain a similar level of achievement. Extended learning time provides an opportunity for the slow learner to master the concept. Bloom, in his instructional strategy of mastery learning, suggested correctives for students who did not perform well in formative assessments. Correctives are various strategies planned by teachers – like extra practice problems, guided activities and remedial classes – to give the learner extended time to perform better. 

b. Practice and revision

The brain creates neural pathways (or circuits) made of interconnecting neurons when exposed to new knowledge and experiences. Synapses are the connections that connect neurons in neural pathways. Better connections result in an efficient flow of electric signals between neurons, which results in enhanced cognition. These synaptic connections can be strengthened through regular practice by revisiting the neural circuit. The connections that are no longer visited are gradually pruned (Goswami, 2004).

Retrieval practice, like short, low-stakes quizzes, is found to be more helpful for remembering concepts in the long-term memory compared to recapping and restudying of the concepts (Perry et al., 2021). This practice also helps teachers to identify misconceptions among learners, and low-stakes tests encourage learners to self-monitor their learning, as they notice the weaknesses in their memory while engaging with the retrieval practice. For this to work well, the tasks should be pitched at the optimum level of difficulty that does not demotivate the learners.

Mind-maps are great tools for effective practice and revision. Mind-maps are known to help in recall, generate focus on a topic and facilitate creativity (Erdem, 2017). Mind-maps are considered to have ‘an important place as a lifelong learning tool nowadays when the constructivist approach is used as a base in the learning-teaching process’ (Erdem, 2017, p. 1). The pictorial representation along with important terms is helpful for recollecting and making connections in the future, acting as mental scaffolding (Yilmaz, 2011). Mind-maps help learners to be self-regulated. Teacher-generated mind-maps and those that use the learners’ prior knowledge appropriately are found to be more successful in yielding positive results, as they avoid overloading the working memory (Perry et al., 2021).

Final thoughts

Neuroscience provides a great deal of information about the effect of sleep, diet and exercise on the efficiency of brain functions, and finds a great deal of application in education (Tarokh et al., 2016; Knight, 2021). NeuromythsCommon misconceptions about the brain (untrue beliefs about the brain and its working), which have found their way into classrooms are raising doubts about the implications of neuroscience in the classroom. However, building a basic knowledge of neuroscience can help to avoid neuromyths. 

To conclude, I believe that there are many opportunities for neuroscience to contribute to education if used carefully and without falling prey to scientism, and if considerable efforts are made by teachers in the classroom to test the validityIn assessment, the degree to which a particular assessment measures what it is intended to measure, and the extent to which proposed interpretations and uses are justified of neuroscience data and to contribute to evidence. With more such careful work in the classroom, a bridge between brain data and pedagogical interventions can be built to facilitate learning for students.