The expressive arts: Exploring the evidence base

This article has been published as part of the Rethinking Curriculum project, kindly funded by The Helen Hamlyn Trust.

Beth O’Brien, Education Content Manager at the Chartered College of Teaching 

What are the expressive arts?

In education, broad terms such as ‘performing arts’, ‘visual arts’, ‘creative arts’ and ‘arts and culture’ are often used interchangeably, though each highlights different aspects of artistic learning. Understanding these distinctions is important when selecting terminology for schools; for example, the term ‘performing arts’ typically refers to disciplines centred on practising and refining performance, such as dance, drama and music.

The Rethinking Curriculum project intentionally uses the term ‘expressive arts’ – a concept that emerged in the late 1970s, influenced by therapeutic arts practices (McNiff, 1981). It reflects a more integrated approach to arts education, moving beyond discrete subject silos. The expressive arts includes traditional disciplines such as visual art, dance, music and drama, but can also encompass film, media, design technology, photography and creative forms of reading and writing.

The term ‘expressive arts’ offers a more inclusive approach to arts education, emphasising creative expression, curiosity and empathy rather than technical mastery. In the Curriculum for Wales (Welsh Government, 2020), participation in the expressive arts is described as providing ‘learners with opportunities to explore, refine and communicate ideas while thinking creatively and engaging their imagination and senses’. Although creativity sits at the heart of the expressive arts, it is not exclusive to this area; as Vincent-Lancrin et al. (2019) explain, creative thinking is essential across all domains, including science, mathematics and the humanities. The terms ‘creativity’ and ‘expressive arts’ should therefore not be used interchangeably.

Adopting the term also reflects wider curriculum developments in Scotland and Wales. The expressive arts is an established area within Scotland’s Curriculum for Excellence (Education Scotland, 2010) and has been more recently embedded in the Curriculum for Wales (Welsh Government, 2020). In both nations, participation in the expressive arts is compulsory to age 16, signalling a renewed commitment to inclusionAn approach where a school aims to ensure that all children are educated together, with support for those who require it to access the full curriculum and contribute to and participate in all aspects of school life, interdisciplinary learning and creative expression, and highlighting the growing status of this domain (Tambling and Bacon, 2023).

What does an expressive arts-rich education look like in practice?

Catterall and colleagues (2009; 2012) conducted large-scale longitudinal studies with secondary school-aged students in the United States to explore the impact of expressive arts participation. As part of this work, they identified features of high-quality arts provision in schools, including:

• a range of arts subjects offered to pupils at all phases 
• specialist teachers to teach these subjects
• well-equipped and maintained specialist facilities 
• a culture that actively promotes participation in the arts.

More recently, in their research with primary schools in England, Thomson et al. (2025) also identified other notable features of an ‘arts-rich’ education, including:

• integration of the expressive arts into the formal curriculum 
• a wide range of arts-based extra-curricular opportunities
• ring-fenced funding for expressive arts participation 
• high-quality professional development for teaching staff delivered by experts
• sustained partnerships with arts and cultural organisations.

While these features provide a starting point for a well-rounded expressive arts education, Thomson et al. (2025, p. 30) acknowledge ‘there are many ways to be arts-rich’. Provision will vary significantly depending on pupil demographics, school context and wider local community. 

What are the benefits of an expressive arts-rich education?

Research evidence suggests that there are numerous benefits associated with expressive arts participation for pupils across primary and secondary settings. These include:

• improved academic outcomes (CASE, 2010, 2015; NEA, 2025), particularly for pupils from low-income backgrounds (Catterall, 2009; Catterall et al., 2012)
• improved literacy skills (CASE, 2010)
• enhanced cognitive abilities (CASE, 2010)
• increased transferable skills (CASE, 2010)
• increased confidence and self-esteem (Thomson et al., 2018; Hewlett et al., 2024) 
• improved communication and self-expression (CASE, 2010; Thomson et al., 2025)
• enhanced collaboration with peers (Hewlett et al., 2024)
• improved sense of general wellbeing (Thomson et al., 2018; Fancourt et al., 2020; Thomson et al., 2025)
• greater sense of agency (Thomson et al., 2018; Thomson et al., 2025)
• greater sense of belonging (NEA, 2025)

However, researchers are cautious about claims of causality. Indeed, as Londesborough (2021, p. 9) notes, ‘it continues to be difficult to prove (or disprove) a causal link’ between expressive arts participation and attainment. Concerning primary pupils, the Culture and Sport Evidence Programme (CASE, 2010, p. 18) found that there was a ‘promising’ impact on pupil attainment but could not say with any certainty that arts participation ‘works’ with this age group. It is widely recognised that there are still significant gaps in the evidence base and more rigorous research at scale is needed to draw definitive conclusions (Winner et al., 2013; Arts Council England, 2014; See and Kokotsaki, 2015). 

Beyond attainment, expressive arts education is argued to have a significant, though often less tangible, impact on inclusion. The expressive arts can provide opportunities to explore personal and shared identities, creating inclusive spaces where a diverse range of perspectives are valued. As Kenyon (2019, p. 13) argues, ‘there are no wrong answers in the arts… responses are personal and unique to that child and uniquely valuable’. The expressive arts have also been identified as an important means of addressing pupil disengagement, offering alternative ways for pupils to communicate and succeed (O’Hanlon et al., 2020; Londesborough, 2021; Thomson et al., 2025). This approach may be particularly significant for pupils with English as an Additional Language (EAL) and those with speech, language and communication needs (SLCN) (Thomson et al., 2025). 

Participation in the expressive arts is also argued to ‘level the playing field’. As Thomson et al. (2025, p. 18) explain, pupils from lower socio-economic backgrounds often rely on school provision to access arts and cultural opportunities. A high-quality expressive arts education may therefore contribute to reducing educational inequalities. You can read more about the evidence base for this on the Arts and Mind Campaign website.

Research evidence also indicates that there are benefits for pupils beyond school. High-quality expressive arts education can foster skills – problem-solving, creative thinking and communication – that are increasingly valued by employers across sectors (Tambling and Bacon, 2023; James and Lunnon, 2024). As such, an expressive arts education has the potential to improve employability (CLA, 2017) and to deliver long-term benefits across industries (James and Lunnon, 2024). As Thomson et al. (2025, p. 19) affirm, skills fostered through the expressive arts are ‘precisely those needed in today’s and tomorrow’s workforce’.

Further still, it is argued that an expressive arts education plays an integral role in building a more ‘humane society’ (Tambling and Bacon, 2023, p. 13). Indeed, the Cultural Learning Alliance (2019, p. 1) describes access to the expressive arts as a ‘social justice issue’, drawing attention to the growing body of evidence that highlights its potential to develop empathy, tolerance and civic engagement later in life. In fact, research indicates that pupils who engage with the expressive arts are twice as likely to volunteer (CASE, 2015) and 20 per cent more likely to participate in democratic processes (CLA, 2017). 

Despite these benefits, quantifying the impact of expressive arts education in concrete, measurable terms remains a longstanding challenge (Arts Council England, 2014). Expressing its contributions to both socio-emotional development and wider society continues to be a complex task.

Overcoming barriers to implementation

There are numerous barriers to consider when developing your expressive arts offer in your context. We have summarised some of these challenges, in relation to the wider research literature, to help you think about how you might preempt or overcome them in your own setting.

Location

Access to artistic and cultural institutions can often underpin high-quality expressive arts education. As Kenyon (2019, p. 24) states, ‘a visit to a gallery or museum can offer a unique opening of the mind and eyes… [it] can inspire optimism… as well as sparking creative ambition’. However, location can be a significant barrier to accessing these opportunities. Schools in major cities benefit from having a range of institutions available to both visit and form partnerships with, while schools based elsewhere tend to have more limited access to such opportunities (O’Hanlon et al., 2020), often compounded by a lack of transport links (Tambling and Bacon, 2023). 

Despite this, numerous case studies highlight the innovative ways in which schools are attempting to overcome this barrier. For example, many schools are increasingly taking advantage of online opportunities, including live-streamed theatre performances and digital visits to art galleries (O’Hanlon et al., 2020). In their research with primary schools, Thomson et al. (2025) also note that effective practice often emerges from drawing on what does exist in the immediate locality, and provide numerous examples of this in their report, Researching the arts in primary schools.

Teacher expertise

Teachers’ knowledge and confidence are central to the quality, breadth and frequency of expressive arts provision. Although the National Curriculum in England requires all primary schools to teach music and art and design, most primary teachers lack specialist expertise in these subjects (Thomson et al., 2025). Initial teacher trainingAbbreviated to ITT, the period of academic study and time in school leading to Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) offers limited preparation: trainee teachers receive an average of only four hours across their PGCE year to cover all arts disciplines (Thomson et al., 2025). As teachers progress in their careers, access to high‑quality continuing professional development (CPD) in the expressive arts remains inconsistent (O’Hanlon et al., 2020; Tambling and Bacon, 2023). Time pressures, budget constraints and competing priorities make it difficult for schools to prioritise this domain (Thomson et al., 2018), while a perceived loss of professional agency has reduced teachers’ willingness to take creative risks in their practice (Tambling and Bacon, 2023).

Improving provision requires school leaders to prioritise sustained, collaborative CPD. Schools that invest in targeted professional learning – supported by specialist art leads and external experts  – are more successful in embedding the expressive arts across the curriculum. Approaches such as team‑teaching, modelling, coaching and peer collaboration are particularly effective (Thomson et al., 2025). Recruiting specialist art leads and giving them the time and resources to share subject‑specific pedagogical knowledge has been identified as a key driver of improvement (Thomson et al., 2025). Teachers also value CPD delivered by arts organisations. Programmes offered by the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) and the Tate, for example, have been shown to boost confidence and motivation to engage in further professional learning (Thomson et al., 2018).

Digital CPD platforms also play an important role. In their research with teachers, Tambling and Bacon (2023) cite particularly useful online platforms, including The Hub at the Old Vic, the Royal Opera House, the National Gallery and the RSC’s Learn programme.

Effective CPD must be carefully sequenced, aligned with a school’s vision for the expressive arts, and inclusive of all teaching and support staff (Thomson et al., 2018). Building mutual respect among stakeholders, recognising their varied starting points and individual expertise, is also essential for meaningful professional development (Thomson et al., 2018).

Hierarchy of subjects 

While the National Curriculum in England requires schools to offer a ‘broad’ range of subjects, academic disciplines tend to be prioritised in schools. Headteachers express the ongoing pressure to focus on subjects that are summatively assessed and subject to accountability measures (Thomson et al., 2025). Although many recognise the value of expressive arts subjects, they also highlight the challenge of integrating them into an already ‘overcrowded curriculum’ (Thomson et al., 2025, p. 42). These pressures seem to be further compounded by an entrenched societal belief that STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) subjects are more economically valuable than creative ones (Thomson et al., 2018). As Ashton (2023, p. 148) states, STEM is often presented as a ‘strategic priority’, while the expressive arts are framed as ‘nice to have’. 

Despite this, an expressive arts education should be an entitlement for all (Thomson et al., 2018). Indeed, it is outlined in Article 31 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child – all children have the right ‘to participate freely in cultural life and the arts’ (United Nations, 1989, p. 10). Educators largely recognise the contribution of the expressive arts – as Tambling and Bacon (2023, p. 53) state, ‘few schools believe that the arts have no contribution to make, or little impact’. Indeed, research evidence consistently suggests that there is a positive correlation between expressive arts participation and a range of academic and non-academic outcomes for pupils. Far from being ‘soft subjects’, meaningful engagement with the expressive arts can enhance learning in other subject areas, including maths and English. Thomson et al. ‘s (2025, p. 18) most recent research demonstrates that the expressive arts are ‘deeply connected to, and supportive of, learning in other subjects’. They can also foster a range of transferable skills that are relevant across sectors and industries (James and Lunnon, 2024). The increasing use of the acronym STEAM (as opposed to STEM) reflects the growing recognition of the role of the expressive arts for employability and economic productivity (CLA, 2017; Ashton, 2023).

Recently, the DfE’s final report of its curriculum and assessment review (2025) emphasised the need to improve access to music, art, drama and other creative subjects, signalling a renewed recognition of their value in the English education system. Its recommendation to remove EBacc measures to promote greater ‘academic breadth’ reflects a shift towards a more balanced curriculum. The government’s response reinforces this ambition:

‘access to a high-quality arts education will not be the preserve of the privileged few, but the entitlement of every child. That is why we are committing to revitalise arts education as part of the reformed national curriculum and through high-quality support for teachers of these subjects.’

                                                                                                                                                   (UK Government, 2025, pp. 14–15)

Assessment 

Assessing pupil progress in the expressive arts poses significant challenges for educators. In England, the expressive arts are disadvantaged in a system that privileges externally assessed, written examinations. While such approaches may be appropriate for subjects with clearly defined knowledge outcomes, they are widely recognised as ill-suited to expressive arts learning, which is often experimental, iterative and interpretive (Tambling and Bacon, 2023; Winner et al., 2013; Thomson et al, 2018). As Thomson et al. (2018, p. 25) explain, the current English assessment system ‘reduces the emphasis on practice and the importance of experiential making and performing aspects of arts subjects’. Winner et al. (2013) also draw attention to the absence of clearly defined assessment criteria, noting that the subjective and abstract nature of the expressive arts can make consensus difficult. 

Nevertheless, there are emerging signs of change. The recent curriculum and assessment review (DfEDepartment for Education - a ministerial department responsible for children’s services and education in England, 2025) acknowledges the limitations of the current assessment system and its negative impact on subjects whose outcomes cannot be easily standardised. Its recognition of expressive arts subjects, with distinct pedagogical needs, suggests a shift in thinking, even if concrete assessment reforms remain underdeveloped. Alongside this, advocacy initiatives, such as Rethinking Assessment (2023), have reframed debates around what counts as valid evidence of learning, arguing for a move away from high-stakes examinations towards more holistic, ongoing forms of assessment. These proposals – including greater use of technology, continuity across educational phases, and the development of digital learner profiles – are supported by the Cultural Learning Alliance, as they allow for capturing evidence of artistic engagement, collaboration and creativity over time (Tambling and Bacon, 2023).

In the absence of system-wide reform, teachers can still play a critical role in recognising, valuing and documenting expressive arts learning in their classrooms. Strategies such as portfolio-based assessment, reflective journals, peer- and self-assessment, and project- or performance-based evaluation allow teachers to capture the process-oriented nature of expressive arts learning. As Eisner (2002, p. 234) argues, the expressive arts ‘should be justified in education primarily in relation to their distinctive or unique contributions’, and finding ways to observe, capture and celebrate these is paramount. 

Partnerships 

Schools with rich expressive arts provision frequently cite partnerships with arts and cultural organisations as a critical factor in their success (O’Hanlon et al., 2020; Thomson et al., 2025). These collaborations provide access to expertise, resources and experiences that a single school cannot offer. Bamford (2006) identifies educational, cultural, and socio-emotional advantages, while Imms et al. (2011, p. 4) extend these to include increased arts-related expertise, confidence and communication skills, as well as a deeper understanding of the creative process. Arts Council England (2014) also highlights the role of partnerships in supporting wellbeing, social cohesion and civic engagement.

However, sustaining high-quality partnerships can be challenging. Educators report a lack of time and agency to seek out and nurture relationships with external organisations (Tambling and Bacon, 2023). The COVID-19 pandemic has only exacerbated these challenges, with many arts-based organisations experiencing funding cuts and staff redundancies. As Tambling and Bacon (2023, p. 91) note, ‘leadership, experience and community relationships [within these organisations] are not always what they were, and are not easily re-built’. 

Successful partnerships must also align with the school’s long-term vision for the expressive arts. Research consistently cautions against viewing partnerships as optional extras; instead, they should be fully integrated into the formal curriculum offer (Arts Council England, 2014; Thomson et al., 2018; O’Hanlon et al., 2020; Thomson et al., 2025). Thomson et al. (2025) provide a list of 12 practices that support effective partnerships on page 80 of their report.

Leadership 

There is a general consensus that the expressive arts can only flourish if there is support from the senior leadership team (O’Hanlon et al., 2020; Tambling and Bacon, 2023; Thomson et al., 2025). O’Hanlon et al. (2020, p. 9) describe leadership as ‘the most crucial’ factor in developing a high-quality expressive arts provision. Central to this is a clearly articulated vision (Thomson et al., 2025) and a shared language around the value of expressive arts education (O’Hanlon et al., 2020). Case studies also highlight the importance of fostering a culture where teacher agency is valued – as stated by O’Hanlon et al. (2020, p. 3), best practice is evident where leadership promotes ‘risk taking, can-do attitudes, and entrepreneurialism with no fear of blame’. 

Leadership can also be supported by appointing an art specialist, champion or lead. O’Hanlon et al. (2020) recommend that these individuals have extensive experience in a particular art form and a strong commitment to developing staff, culture and curriculum in this area. Thomson et al. (2025) also stress the importance of providing art leads with sufficient time and resources to develop both staff and the curriculum. However, it is also acknowledged that these appointments can be challenging in a time where finite resources are already stretched (Tambling and Bacon, 2023). 

Governing bodies also play an important role in supporting and promoting the expressive arts. Research recommends appointing an expressive arts link governor, who holds arts expertise (O’Hanlon et al., 2020; Thomson et al., 2025). This role can provide strategic oversight and advocacy. The National Governance Association provides an online course to specifically support governors in this role.

Other features of good practice include appointing pupil ambassadors for the expressive arts. Thomson et al.’s (2025) research report offers various examples of how this can be done effectively. 

Funding and resources

Lack of funding and resources remains one of the most frequently cited barriers to embedding expressive arts education (O’Hanlon et al., 2020; Tambling and Bacon, 2023; Thomson et al., 2025). Schools face increasingly tighter budgets and are often forced to make difficult decisions about their provision. The Cultural Learning Alliance (2022) highlights data suggesting that the expressive arts are adversely affected during times of financial constraint. Unfortunately, the expressive arts often require higher-resource budgets and are therefore more likely to be cut during periods of financial hardship. These cuts tend to disproportionately impact pupils from lower socio-economic backgrounds, who often do not have the financial means and/or access to expressive arts opportunities (Tambling & Bacon, 2023).

Despite these challenges, schools are working in innovative ways to sustain their expressive arts offer. Common approaches include collaborating with other schools in their locality to divide costs, apply for grants and share resources (e.g. a space to curate an exhibition) (Thomson et al., 2025). Other schools highlight the importance of fundraising, often with the expressive arts at the heart of this (e.g. putting on a fundraising performance) or building dedicated art spaces (e.g. a dance studio) to create another revenue stream for the school (Thomson et al., 2025). Other educators have spoken of the benefits of engaging with social media, where many free or subsidised expressive arts opportunities are advertised (O’Hanlon et al., 2020).

Towards successful implementation

While there have been recent developments to re-establish the expressive arts in education, many educators still feel constrained by the lack of guidance, resources or capacity to facilitate this learning effectively. Despite this, there is a growing body of research that demonstrates the benefits of this work, alongside evidence-based methods of its delivery in schools.

As with any approach, there are numerous ways in which it can be implemented, depending on the unique characteristics of the school’s context and pupils. When considering how to develop or strengthen an expressive arts offer, it may be helpful to consider the following takeaways to inform your approach:

• Terminology and scope: The term ‘expressive arts’ encompasses a broad range of artistic disciplines, acknowledging their integrated nature. It places emphasis on creative expression, curiosity and empathy, rather than perfecting technique or performance. It is important to adopt terminology that fits your curriculum offer and vision for expressive arts education, and to communicate this clearly with staff, pupils and the wider community.

• Features of an expressive arts-rich school: These include access to a diverse range of artistic disciplines at all phases, specialist teachers, well-equipped facilities, integrated curriculum provision, extra-curricular opportunities and strong partnerships with arts organisations.
• Benefits: Participation in the expressive arts is associated with a wide range of positive outcomes: improved academic performance, literacy and cognitive skills, confidence, communication, collaboration, wellbeing, agency, and sense of belonging. Benefits are particularly pronounced for pupils from low-income backgrounds and those at risk of disengagement. Expressive arts education is also linked to increased civic engagement, social cohesion and employability.
• Limitations: While the evidence base is growing, establishing causal links between expressive arts participation and academic attainment remains challenging, particularly for younger pupils. More rigorous, longitudinal research is needed to better understand the mechanisms through which expressive arts participation impacts learning and development.
• Barriers: Educators may face numerous challenges when implementing a high-quality expressive arts offer in their context, including geographic isolation, lack of teacher expertise, limited professional development opportunities, the low status of the expressive arts, narrow assessment practices, and lack of time and resources. While there is growing recognition of the importance of the expressive arts, significant systemic barriers remain. 
• Leadership: Support from senior leadership teams is critical to developing and sustaining high-quality expressive arts provision. Where possible, seek to appoint a specialist art lead and/or link governor to support this journey.
• CPD: Generalist primary teachers often require specialist training to deliver high-quality expressive arts education. This CPD should be delivered by experts (art leads or an art-based organisation), carefully planned and sequenced over time, and incorporate approaches such as team-teaching, coaching and peer collaboration.
• Partnerships: Collaboration with arts and cultural organisations can enhance the long-term success of expressive arts learning. Effective partnerships are not an ‘add-on’. They should be integrated into the curriculum offer, underpinned by a shared vision and developed through purposeful, respectful collaboration over time.
• Digital tools: Online platforms are proving increasingly valuable for teachers and pupils to develop their experiences, skills and expertise in the expressive arts. We encourage you to look at our reading and resources list to support you with this. Social media can also be an important tool for advocacy and in celebrating expressive arts learning in your context.

References

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